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Before the 1850's the United States had a number of small colleges ,most of them dating from colonial days .They were small ,church-connected institutions whose primary concern was to shape the moral character of their students . Throughout Europe ,institutions of higher learning had developed ,bearing the ancient name of university .In Germany a different kind of university had developed . The German university was concerned primarily with creating and spreading knowledge, not morals. Between mid-century and the end of the 1800's, more than nine thousand young Americans, dissatisfied with their training at home ,went to Germany for advanced study. Some of them returned to become presidents of venerable colleges --- Harvard ,Yale , Columbia --- and transform them into modem universities .The new presidents broke all ties with the churches and brought in a new kind of faculty. Professors were hired for their knowledge of a subject, not because they were of the proper faith and had a strong arm for disciplining students. The new principle was that a university was to create knowledge as well as pass it on, and this called for a faculty composed of teacher-scholars. Drilling and learning by rote were replaced by the German method of lecturing , in which the professor's own research was presented in class . Graduate training leading to the Ph.D, an ancient German degree signifying the highest level of advanced scholarly attainment ,was introduced .With the establishment of the seminar system, graduate students learned to question ,analyze, and conduct their own research . At the same time ,the new university greatly expanded in size and course offerings, breaking completely out of the old , constricted curriculum of mathematics ,classics ,rhetoric ,and music . The president of Harvard pioneered the elective system ,by which students were able to choose their own courses of study .The notion of major fields of study emerged .The new goal was to make the university relevant to the real pursuits of the world. Paying close heed to the practical needs of society ,the new universities trained men and women to work at its tasks, with engineering students being the most characteristic of the new regime . Students were also trained as economists ,architects ,agriculturalists ,social welfare workers ,and teachers. 重点单词： Most of our planet is covered by water .There is so much of it that if all the mountains of the world were leveled and their debris dumped into the oceans, the surface of the globe would be entirely submerged beneath water to a depth of several thousand meters. The great basins between the continents, in which all this water lies, are themselves more varied ,topographically than the surface of the land. The highest terrestrial mountain, Mount Everest, would fit into the deepest part of the ocean, the Mariana Trench ,with its peak a kilometer beneath the surface .On the other hand, the biggest mountains of the sea are so huge that they rise above the surface of water to form chains of islands .Mauna Kea, the highest of the Hawaiian volcano, measured from its base on the ocean floor is more than 10,000 meters high and so can claim to be highest mountain on the planet. The sea first formed when the Earth began to cool soon after and its birth and hot water vapor condensed on its surface. They were further fed by water gushing through volcanic vents from the interior of the Earth. The water of these young seas was not pure, like rainwater, but contained significant quantities of chlorine, bromine, iodine, boron, and nitrogen, as well as traces of many rarer substances. Since then ,other ingredients have been added. As continental rocks weather and erode, they produce salts that are carried in solution down to the sea by rivers.So,over millennia, the sea has been getting saltier and saltier. Life first appeared in this chemically rich water some 3.5 billion years ago. We know from fossils that the first organisms were simple single-celled bacteria and algae. Organisms very like them still exist in the sea today. They are the basis of all marine life, indeed, were it not for these algae, the seas would still be completely sterile and the land uninhabited. 重点单词： The most striking single fact about chimpanzees is the flexibility of their social life, the lack of any rigid form of organization. It represents about as far a departure from the baboon type of organization as one can find among the higher primates, and serves to emphasize the great variety of primate adaptations. Chimpanzees are more human than baboons ,or rather they jibe better with the way we like to picture ourselves ,as free-wheeling individuals who tend to be unpredictable, do not take readily to any form of regimentation, and are frequently charming.(Charm is relatively rare among baboons.) Two research have described what they found during more than eight months spent among chimpanzees in their natural habitat, the forest: "We were quite surprised to observe that there is no single distinct social unit in chimpanzee society. Not only is there no 'family' or 'harem' organization ; neither is there a 'troop' organization --- that is to say ,no particular chimpanzees keep permanently together .On the contrary ,individuals move about at will, alone or in small groups best described as bands ,which sometimes form into large aggregations. They leave their associates if they want to, and join up with new ones without conflict." The general practice is best described as "easy come ,easy go", although there are certain group-forming tendencies. As a rule chimpanzees move about in one of four types of band: adult males only ;mothers and offspring and occasionally a few other females; adults and adolescents of both sexes, but no mothers with young; and representatives of all categories mixed together. The composition of bands may change a number of times during the course of a day as individuals wander off and groups split or combine with other groups. On the other hand, certain individuals prefer one another's company. One of the researchers observed that four males often roamed together over a four-month period, and mother often associated with their older offspring. 重点单词： Perhaps no poet's career was more closely associated with the Imagist movement than was that of H.D. (Hilda Doolittle). Her verse, with its precise, clear images, typified the Imagists rebellion against what they perceived as the sentimentalism and careless techniques of nineteenth century poetry. H.D. attended private schools in Philadelphia and then Bryn Maws College. The love of classical antiquity she acquired during these years later surfaces in the many references in her poetry to figures from Greek and Egyptian mythology and in her classical notions of beauty and form. While in Philadelphia she also began rewarding friendships with Ezra Pound, William Carlos williams, and Harriet Monroe . In 1910,H.D. sailed for Europe, where her career began. Soon after arriving in London, she renewed her friendship with Pound and met and married Richard Aldington, an Imagist poet and novelist who also directly influenced the shape of her writing. She began writing short poems that so impressed Pound with their precise description and diction that he insisted she submit them to Harriet Monroe's Poety magazine signed "H.D., Imagist". She persisted in using her initials for the remainder of her career, a career closely linked to the Imagist rebellion against more traditional poetry. The clear ,spare, and energetic lyrics of H.D.'s early poems, with classical images, later become fuller, and more "open" philosophic explorations of the world. By then, the destruction of the Second World War that she witnessed elicited deeper visions of the relations of ancient truths to modern realities. That vision is expressed in such work as Trilogy(1946), Helen in Egypt(1961), and her last work, Hermetic Definition(1961). H.D's industry and literary achievement are just beginning to be recognized and appreciated. In addition to her poetry, she wrote several novels, including Palimpsest(1926), Hedylus(1928), and Bid Me to Live(1960). Many of her other poems, essays , and short stories have been published posthumously. 重点单词： Fully outfitted for work on the range, a cowboy, in the days of the western frontier was covered from head to foot in a protective costume that identified him as distinctly as a knight's armor identified its owner. But every item of dress had a useful purpose, from the broad-brimmed hat that kept sun and rain off his head to the spurs fastened to the backs of his boots. Even the cowboy's ornamental-looking bandanna had various functions --- as a mask to keep out trail dust, as insulation against the desert sun when wadded up and stuck in a hat crown, even as a tourniquet in case of a rattlesnake bite. Beneath this glamorous but utilitarian garb, the cowhand was dressed like any other laborer. He normally wore long jeans --- unless it was too hot. His shirt was typically collarless and made of cotton or flannel. His woolen pants were sometimes fortified with buckskin sewn over the seat and down the inner thighs to keeps them from fraying where they rubbed against the saddle .He rarely used suspenders ,since they chafed him, and just as rarely wore belt unless , as in later days, he was a rodeo rider hankering to show off a fancy belt buckle won in the arena. As a practical measure his pants had to stay up by themselves and thus were bought to fit tightly around the waist .Because it was inconvenient to carry anything in pants' pockets while riding ,the cowboy usually had on a vest with deep pockets where he kept his tobacco and perhaps a tally book for keeping count of cattle. 重点单词： |
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